Selected Chapters of Hobb's Book Leviathan

December 7, 2024 | 1,854 words | 9min read

Paper Title: The Claims of Philosophy
Link to Paper: https://www.gutenberg.org/files/3207/3207-h/3207-h.htm
Date: 1651
Paper Type: Philosophy of Politics, Philosophy of Anthropology, Social Contract Theory
Short Abstract:
This summary covers Chapter XIII, which describes the natural state of mankind; Chapter XIV, which explains the first and second natural laws and the contracts associated with them; Chapter XV, which outlines additional laws; Chapter XVII, which discusses the commonwealth and its causes; Chapter XVIII, which details the rights of the sovereign; Chapter XXI, which examines the role of liberty in the commonwealth; and finally, Section XXX, which addresses the sovereignty of representatives.

Part 1: Of Man

Chapter XIII: Of the Natural Condition of Mankind

The nature of man is that they are created mostly equal in both physical and mental abilities.

Even the physically weakest man can kill the strongest through guile and traps.

For mental ability, the equality is even stronger. Anyone who denies that others can learn as much as they can, given enough time, is an arrogant fool.

Through this equality of abilities comes the hope that mankind may also be equal in outcomes.

However, if two men desire the same thing, and both cannot have it, they become enemies and try to either destroy or subjugate each other.

From this arises the need to defend one’s home and fields, fearing that others may come in greater numbers to take them.

Because of this mistrust of others, there is no alternative but to defend oneself with power and violence.

The human nature has three main causes for conflict:

1. Competition: Leads to conflict over profit, to dominate others and acquire things.
2. Mistrust of Others: Conflict to ensure one’s security and defend one’s possessions.
3. Fame-Seeking: Conflict for self-esteem, often over trivial matters, such as differing opinions.

Thus, in their natural habitat, humans are in a constant state of war. Here, war does not merely mean active battles but the perpetual readiness to fight. Only periods where this readiness is absent can be called peace.

In wartime, because one cannot ensure security, there will be no farming, no trade, and no comfort.

Some might disagree, but consider this: do you not lock your house when you leave? Do you not travel with some form of weapon for protection? What does this reveal about your view of your fellow men?

The desires of man themselves are not sinful, nor are the actions that stem from them. What is sinful are actions stemming from desires that are forbidden by law.

One example of this natural state of man is the native people of America, who, lacking government, live with governance only within their families.

Another implication of this state of war is that nothing is unjust. Without a government holding a monopoly on violence to enforce laws, concepts like justice are meaningless.

Furthermore, there is no such thing as mine or yours. Possessions exist only as long as one can acquire and defend them.

Chapter XIV: First and Second Law of Nature and Contracts

The natural law, called jus naturale, is the freedom to do whatever one desires based on their rationality, as long as it serves their own ends.
Under freedom, we understand the absence of obstacles.

A law of nature, or lex naturalis, is a rule derived through reason, which forbids a person from doing anything that would lead to their own death or deprive them of what they need to sustain their life.

As explained in the previous chapter, humans in their natural state exist in a time of war, meaning everyone acts solely according to their own rationality. In such a state, everyone has a right to everything, even to the bodies of others. As a result, no one can be certain of their own rights.

The first law of nature, therefore, is:

One is allowed to use whatever tools are necessary to defend one’s own possessions.

The second law of nature states:

Everyone should voluntarily, if others are also willing, waive their right to everything, if it is necessary for peace and self-defense. One should have as much freedom as they grant to others.

This aligns with the holy scripture:

“Do to others what you would have them do to you.”

A person waives a right when they publicly declare it as such. This can either be a simple renunciation or a transfer of the right to another person. In the latter case, the individual becomes obligated toward the other.

From this arises the concept of obligation. If one fails to adhere to an obligation, they act unjustly, as they have transferred their right to another.

When someone transfers a right, they do so because they believe they will gain something in return. Every person acts according to what they perceive as best for themselves.

Certain rights, however, cannot be transferred, such as the right to self-defense.

If a contract is made in which neither party immediately fulfills their obligations, but instead trusts the other to fulfill their duties in the future, such a contract becomes void in times of war. This is because, in war, every person seeks to enforce the other party’s obligations while neglecting their own.

In a civil state, however, where the government holds power, individuals fulfill their obligations out of fear of punishment from the state.

Chapter XV: Further Laws of Nature

The third law of nature is:

Completed contracts are to be fulfilled.

Without this, contracts are meaningless—mere empty words.

From this law comes the concept of justice. If a contract is completed, it is unjust to break it. Thus, injustice is defined as breaking a contract, and anything that is not injustice is instead considered justice.

However, the fulfillment of a contract relies on the mutual trust of both parties to honor their obligations in the future. This trust is impossible during wartime, where fear and mistrust dominate.

People can only trust one another if there is a stronger authority to enforce the obligations of both parties. Therefore, justice can only truly exist with the establishment of a civil state.

Even when individuals are willing to honor their contracts, disputes may still arise regarding the specific duties outlined in the agreement. To resolve such disputes, an arbiter is required.

From this follows another natural law:

If people are in conflict, they should submit to an arbiter.

However, this arbiter must be impartial, ensuring they do not favor one party over the other out of bias or favoritism. Even so, an arbiter can still be corrupted by promises of money or other rewards.

The laws of nature are eternal and unchanging, for concepts such as injustice or arrogance are never right.

The science of the law is the only valid moral philosophy, capable of determining what is good and what is bad.

Humanity will remain in a state of war as long as private opinions about morality dominate over the law. Law codifies virtues such as justice and modesty and provides a universal standard for moral conduct.

Part 2: Of Commonwealth

Chapter XVII: The Cause and Definition of Commonwealth

The reason why we accept the limitations imposed by the state is to achieve self-preservation and live a happy life. To escape the natural state of war inherent in human nature, a strong state with visible power is necessary. This state must be capable of limiting human desires and enforcing contracts by threatening punishment.

If the coercive power of the state is absent or insufficient to guarantee the security of its people, individuals will revert to using their own power to seek justice.

A small group of people united for security is not enough. A larger, more powerful group could easily overpower them, leading to defeat. Therefore, the number of people required to ensure security must be large enough to create uncertainty about which side would prevail in a conflict. Only then can security be guaranteed.

Some animals, like bees and ants, can coexist without such stringent rules, but this is not possible for humans due to the following reasons:

1. Humans are in a constant state of competition.
2. For bees and ants, the well-being of the individual aligns with the well-being of the group.
3. These animals lack rationality and thus cannot question their social organization.
4. They do not have advanced language, making it difficult to imagine alternative systems of governance.
5. Ants and bees naturally live together, while humans must rely on artificial contracts to form societies.

The only way to establish centralized power capable of protecting people is for individuals to transfer their power and strength to a single individual or a group. This entity then represents the people and maintains peace.

When people transfer their power, this agreement is called the state. The individual or group that holds this power is referred to as the sovereign, which represents the highest authority.

This supreme authority can be acquired either through conquest and subjugation or by individuals willingly submitting to it.

Chapter XVIII: The Rights of Sovereigns

The sovereign does not need to enter into a literal contract with their subjects. This is because such a contract would either need to be made with each individual, which is impractical, or with the collective group. However, at the time of forming the contract, the people do not yet constitute a unified group.

If individuals believe the sovereign has broken their obligations, this would inevitably lead to a return to war. In such a case, there is no higher arbiter to resolve disputes, as the sovereign represents the ultimate authority.

Chapter XXI: Of the Liberty of Subjects

No state can create rules and laws to govern every aspect of human behavior. Therefore, human liberty exists in all areas where no laws have been established.

However, this does not mean the sovereign has unlimited power. A sovereign cannot act in ways that lead to injustice because every subject is considered the author of every action undertaken by the sovereign.

It is possible for a subject to be ordered to face death by the sovereign, and such actions are still deemed just. However, the sovereign can never take away a person’s fundamental right to self-defense, whether in body or mind. This means that no one is obligated to incriminate themselves.

Chapter XXX: Sovereign Representatives

The security of the people requires that the sovereign’s use of violence be justified and applied equally to all, regardless of status (e.g., rich or poor). Equal justice also necessitates equal taxation.

If some individuals are unable to sustain themselves due to misfortune, the sovereign has an obligation to provide for them. Just as individuals help those in need, the state must do the same as part of its contract with the people.

If the number of unemployed individuals grows, it becomes the state’s responsibility to provide work for them.

The state is also obligated to create good laws. What constitutes a good law? A good law is one that is necessary for the well-being of the people.